Les colonies allemandes et une partie des possessions ottomans sont données aux vainqueurs. By coupling state policy with private investment, Israel has invited both state and multinational corporate actors to benefit from its colonial enterprise. Access your favorite authors, articles and more. Pendant la 1GM, la colonisation s'est renforcée au profit des vainqueurs. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is not the product of ancient ethnic hatreds. The Zionist leader Theodor Herzl in 1896 published “Der Judenstaat,” or “The Jewish State,” in which he warned that Jews were not safe in Europe, a warning that within a few decades proved terrifyingly prescient with the rise of German fascism. Fish, also known as Dwayne Booth, is a cartoonist who primarily creates for Truthdig.com and Harpers.com. “With ‘Great Jewry’ against us,” warned Britain’s Sir Mark Sykes, who with the French diplomat François Georges-Picot created the secret treaty that carved up the Ottoman Empire between Britain and France, there would be no possibility of victory. Many of the Jews who fled to Israel would not have done so but for the virulent European anti-Semitism that by the end of World War II saw 6 million Jews murdered. July 1 may have come and gone in anticlimactic fashion, but Israel has shown its true intentions to the world and they cannot be unseen. L'Atlantique central et l'océan Indien restent le d… This kind of public honesty, Khalidi notes, was rare among leading Zionists. La colonisation ne peut avoir qu’un seul but, et les Arabes de Palestine ne peuvent pas accepter ce but. In fact, Israel has enjoyed wide-ranging impunity throughout the various stages of colonisation of Palestine as the international community has treated it as if it were a law-abiding sovereign state and not a colonising power. La colonisation sioniste de Palestine date de 1881, et même de 1870, si on considère qu'elle remonte à la fondation, par l'Alliance israélite universelle, de la première école agricole juive en Palestine. It is the tragic clash between two peoples with claims to the same land. Cette institution prévoit dans sa charte le droit des peuples à disposer d’eux-mêmes. Chris Hedges writes a weekly opinion column for Truthdig. Cette barbarie de la colonisation a déshumanisé la conscience collective française. They subsidized European Jewish settlers sent to Palestine, where 94% of the inhabitants were Arabs. L’Organisation des Nations-Unies a été fondée en 1945. Effectivement, « l’ œ uvre » coloniale française n’était pas isolée, l’Angleterre et la Belgique ont aussi contribué à dessiner cet imaginaire occidental fait de domination au détriment du reste du monde. Without an external force acting against Israel’s expansionist ambitions, the colonisation of Palestine will continue. To add to these bizarre anti-Semitic canards, the British believed that Jews and Dönmes — or “crypto-Jews” whose ancestors had converted to Christianity but who continued to practice the rituals of Judaism in secret — controlled the Turkish government. During the British control of Palestine, the population was officially divided between Jews and “non-Jews.” “There were no such thing as Palestinians … they did not exist,” onetime Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir quipped. His latest is These Chains Will Be Broken: Palestinian Stories of Struggle and Defiance in Israeli Prisons (Clarity Press). This has disturbed the delicate balance the international community has tried to maintain between the integrity of the international legal system and its inaction on Israeli violations, with the costs of this now potentially outweighing the benefits (including economic ones). The Israeli colonial project has many of the common colonial characteristics, such as supremacy, exploitation and entitlement, but it also has at least one distinguishing feature – its multinational corporate nature. Pour éviter une catastrophe financière, le khédive Ismaïl vend les parts égyptiennes du Canal de Suez, soit 177 000 acti… Jewish mobs and vigilantes, including thugs from right-wing youth groups such as Im Tirtzu, carry out indiscriminate acts of vandalism and violence against dissidents, Palestinians, Israeli Arabs and the hapless African immigrants who live crammed into the slums of Tel Aviv. 1830 : Début de la colonisation de l'Algérie. “Some 80 percent of the Arab population of the territory that at war’s end became the new state of Israel had been forced from their homes and lost their lands and property. This is because, with this outrageous move, the Israeli government threatens to unravel the rules-based system of international relations. Although international law was supposed to put an end to the practice of colonialism, it is clear that it has not yet finished the job. When trying to produce and disseminate knowledge about Palestine, they took the German methods as an example, and occasionally called in German scientists from outside the Zionist movement. Now you can personalize your Truthdig experience. Alors de grâce arrête de discriminer même le degré de la souffrance des peuples colonisés. He argued that it would encourage states to expel its Jews. We are committed to building a movement based on these principles, and we hope to work with individuals or organizations whose goal is the liberation of Palestine. That action should take the form of targeted sanctions aimed at the entire economic incentive structure feeding into, and flowing out of, Israel’s colonial enterprise. Thus, corporate considerations – direct and indirect economic benefits – have discouraged governments from taking political action to hinder the momentum of Israel’s colonial project and thus both state and multinational corporate actors have contributed to its operation. The rapid Zionist colonisation of Palestine; Twitter isn’t censoring accounts to keep users ‘safe’, it is using its power to spoon-feed the world establishment … Palestinians and Arab states rejected this (at this time Jewish people would gain over 54% of the land by UN partition). Whether it was through the treatment of settlers as part of the civilian population in occupied territory or the justification of the exploitation of natural resources through royalty payments to the Israeli Civil Administration and employment for Palestinians, the Israeli judicial system has provided “legal” cover to Israel’s broader colonial enterprise by exploiting another principle of the law of armed conflict, which allows changes to be made in occupied territory if they are made in the interests of the civilian population therein. ANGLE DE LA RUE BERGER ET DE LA RUE LESCAUT. “Our situation will deteriorate to that of a second Vietnam [a reference to the war waged by the United States in the 1970s], to a war in constant escalation without prospect of ultimate resolution,” Leibowitz wrote. At least 720,000 of the 1.3 million Palestinians were made refugees. RV SAMEDI 6 FÉVRIER . The Haganah, trained and armed by the British, swiftly seized most of Palestine. Israel, of course, is not alone in having expansionist ambitions. Chris Hedges / TruthDig, by Appel à rassemblement pour la Palestine ce samedi à Paris ! The international legal regime was meant to help end colonialism. Israel runs the Saharonim detention camp in the Negev Desert, one of the largest detention centers in the world, where African immigrants can be held for up to three years without trial. “Death to Arabs” is a popular chant at Israeli soccer matches. Today’s international law regime was established in the first half of the 20th century not only to regulate relations between states but also to assist the movements for self-determination across the world and oversee the end of colonialism. The looming Israeli annexation of Palestinian land and the global inaction on it evidence the failure of this regime to help end colonialism and put its very raison d’etre in question. Ramzy Baroud. Je le recommande tout particulierement, aux juifs ultras, qui ne demordent pas de leur soit disant legitimité, à occuper les terres de Palestine. Herzl lui-même écrivait sur les juifs de la façon suivante " J’ai réussi à atteindre… The Zionists could never have colonized the Palestinians without the backing of Western imperial powers whose motives were tainted by anti-Semitism. The Jewish colonizers knew they needed an imperial patron to succeed and survive. But among themselves the Zionists clearly understood that the use of armed force against the Arab majority was essential for the colonial project to succeed. This incentive structure helps explain the Janus-faced response by the international community to Israel’s colonial enterprise: its condemnation of Israel and insistence on the implementation of international legal provisions and its simultaneous willingness not to take any serious measures to stop it. Zionism, therefore, could be and was both a national and a colonial settler movement at one and the same time.”, One of the central tenets of the Zionist and Israeli colonization is the denial of an authentic, independent Palestinian identity. 1867 : Le Canada devient un dominion (colonie britannique blanche de peuplement). The administration would have to suppress Arab insurgency on the one hand and acquire Arab Quislings on the other. Palestine was carved out of Greater Syria as a separate country, expressly for Zionist colonisation, with Britain as its foster-mother country: the preamble to the League of Nations mandate, appointing Britain as the mandatory power, quoted the Balfour Declaration verbatim. Most of the Zionist leaders “protested the innocent purity of their aims and deceived their Western listeners, and perhaps themselves, with fairy tales about their benign intentions toward the Arab inhabitants of Palestine,” he writes. Ze’ev Jabotinsky, the godfather of the right-wing ideology that has dominated Israel since 1977, an ideology openly embraced by Prime Ministers Menachem Begin, Yitzhak Shamir, Ariel Sharon, Ehud Olmert and Benjamin Netanyahu, wrote bluntly in 1923: “Every native population in the world resists colonists as long as it has the slightest hope of being able to rid itself of the danger of being colonized. It is telling that the only Jewish member of Prime Minister David Lloyd George’s government, Edwin Montagu, vehemently opposed the Balfour Declaration. ), where "E.Y." Mais dans le même temps, lui et sa famille se sont accaparés un cinquième des terres cultivées. Rashid Khalidi, the Edward Said professor of modern Arab studies at Columbia University, in his book “The Hundred Years’ War on Palestine: A History of Settler Colonization and Resistance, 1917-2017” has meticulously documented this long project of colonization of Palestine. Yet to state these incontrovertible facts of Jewish colonization — supported by innumerable official reports and public and private communiques and statements, along with historical records and events — sees Israel’s defenders level charges of anti-Semitism and racism. Therefore, the international community must address the underlying root causes that have brought about this threat by ending its reluctance to hold Israel accountable for its continued colonisation of Palestine and take tangible action now. Much of the narrative in international diplomatic circles around the issue of annexation has revolved around deterrence, with the rationale being the threat of tangible consequences to annexation will lead to a reconsideration of the move. “Palestine will become the world’s ghetto,” he warned. Les années 30, c'est l'Appogee de la colonisation. Its response to the threat of formal annexation cannot be merely trying to push back from the tipping point by threatening the sanctioning of Israel to prevent it from acting on its threats. Thanks to this violent transformation, Israel controlled 78 percent of the territory of former Mandatory Palestine, and now ruled over the 160,000 Palestinian Arabs who had been able to remain, barely one-fifth of the prewar Arab population.”, Since 1948, Palestinians have heroically mounted one resistance effort after another, all unleashing disproportionate Israeli reprisals and a demonization of the Palestinians as terrorists. The continued colonisation of Palestine is a prime example of this. He warned that if Israel did not separate church and state and end its colonial occupation of the Palestinians it would give rise to a corrupt rabbinate that would warp Judaism into a fascistic cult. En 1852, l'Association pour Favoriser la Colonisation Juive en Palestine a été créée par Gawler et d'autres responsables britanniques qui s'est transformée ensuite en Fonds de la Palestine. Khalidi writes, “The surest way to eradicate a people’s right to their land is to deny their historical connection to it.”. But, as Khalidi writes, “once colonialism took on a bad odor in the post-World War II era of decolonization, the colonial origins and practice of Zionism and Israel were whitewashed and conveniently forgotten in Israel and the West. It is also why I support the BDS movement. The Palestine Jewish Colonization Association (Hebrew: חברה להתיישבות יהודית בארץ־ישראל ‎), commonly known by its Yiddish acronym PICA (Hebrew: פיק"א ‎), was established in 1924. It is about the rendering of the Palestinians as non-people, writing them out of the historical narrative as if they never existed and denying them basic human rights. L’histoire de la Palestine retrace les événements de cette région historique et géographique du Proche-Orient située entre la mer Méditerranée et le désert à l'est du Jourdain et au nord du Sinaï [1]. L’Angleterre est représentée au Caire par un haut-commissaire ; le premier sera Sir Arthur Henry Mac-Mahon. Choose authors to follow, bookmark your favorite articles and more. Il y a un siècle, les accords Sykes-Picot ont dépecé l'Empire ottoman et le Proche-Orient en plusieurs zones d'influence au profit de la France et du Royaume-Uni. Israel was all that many impoverished and stateless survivors, robbed of their national rights, communities, homes and often most of their relatives, had left. Its democracy — which was always exclusively for Jews — has been hijacked by extremists, including current Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, who have implemented racial laws that were once championed mainly by marginalized fanatics such as Meir Kahane. À partir de 1946, l’Angleterre, considérant que son mandat a atteint son objectif, à savoir que le terrain est prêt pour officialiser la création de l’État d’Israël, et malgré d’importantes tensions entre populations arabes et juives, annonce son retrait imminent de la Palestine. La Russie, de son, côté, se voyait attribuer une autre partie de l’Anatolie, Istanbul et l’Arménie et revendiquait en outre les villes de Nazareth, Jérusalem, Naplouse et Hébron. Wesam Ahmad is a Palestinian human rights advocate at Al-Haq NGO in Ramallah, Palestine and a PhD student at the Irish Centre for Human Rights in Galway, Ireland. Colonialism can never truly be eradicated so long as the colonisation of Palestine continues. Britain’s support of a Jewish homeland was always colored by anti-Semitism. Le khédive[2] Ismaïl, arrivé au pouvoir onze ans auparavant, il a entrepris des travaux conséquents dans le but de faire de l’Egypte une grande nation sur le plan international. Those Jews who returned to countries like Poland found they had nowhere to live and were often victims of discrimination as well as postwar anti-Semitic attacks and even massacres. Les noms de Palestine mandataire, ou Palestine sous mandat britannique , désignent le statut politique proposé par la Société des Nations en 1920, mandat établi à partir de 1923, pour le territoire de la Palestine antérieurement partie de l’Empire ottoman. The British elites, including Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour, also believed that Jews could never be assimilated in British society and it was better for them to emigrate. Be well, stay safe and look out for each other. La Quatrième Convention de Genève précise que « la Puissance occupante ne pourra procéder à la déportation ou au transfert d’une partie de sa propre population civile dans le territoire occupé par elle. All content © 2021 Truthdig, LLC. This project is about the ongoing seizure of Palestinian land by the colonizers. There is also good reason to fear that the Israel Defense Force, which has been until now a people’s army, would, as a result of being transformed into an army of occupation, degenerate, and its commanders, who will have become military governors, resemble their colleagues in other nations.”. Nevertheless, they decided to exploit  provisions in the law of armed conflict which allow for the seizure of property when “imperatively demanded by the necessities of war” in order to provide an umbrella for the eventual development and expansion of Jewish settlements on Palestinian land. The Zionists — in a situation similar to that of today’s supporters of Israel — were aware it would be fatal to acknowledge that the creation of a Jewish homeland required the expulsion of the Arab majority. His exhaustive research, which includes internal, private communications between the early Zionists and Israeli leadership, leaves no doubt that the Jewish colonizers were acutely aware from the start that the Palestinian people had to be subjugated and removed to create the Jewish state. It is for this reason that international law includes provisions that are supposed to curb expansionism. Our archive of 15 years of award-winning independent journalism is available for free. This erasure, which requires an egregious act of historical amnesia, is what the Israeli sociologist Baruch Kimmerling called the “politicide” of the Palestinian people. L’Angleterre empochait la plus grosse part de l’Irak, la Jordanie et le désert du Néguev, en Palestine. La zone n'est pas clairement définie. Arizona Secretary of State Confirms Election Fraud During Primary Vote, Scientists Definitively Debunk the Biggest Climate Change Lie, The Latinx Vote Might Carry ‘Tío Bernie’ to Victory, Corporate Media Is Practically Baying for a Police State, Ilhan Omar Has a Plan to Revolutionize U.S. Foreign Policy, boycott, divestment and sanctions movement, Class: The Little Word the Elites Want You to Forget. Il s'agit d'évoquer l'expansion coloniale en rapport avec les systèmes qui y ont présidé et les doctrines qui l'ont justifiée ou combattue. It played a major role in purchasing land for the Jewish settlement in Palestine and later the State of Israel until the association disbandment in 1957. Natasha Hakimi Zapata / TruthDig, by Revue britannique ou choix d'articles des meilleurs écrits périodiques de la grande bretagne , tome premier, année 1849. History is replete with examples of rapacious colonial states and the means, methods and justifications they have used in moving forward their colonial practices. The early Zionists bought up huge tracts of fertile Palestinian land and drove out the indigenous inhabitants. With 2020 marking the final year of the Third International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism, it is time for the international community to realise that the current Israeli colonial practices cannot be separated from the history of colonialism. If the Zionists were given a homeland in Palestine, the British believed, the Jews and Dönmes would turn on the Turkish regime, which was allied with Germany in the war, and the Turkish government would collapse. La colonisation est en soi illégale en droit international. Fish's work has also appeared nationally in The Los Angeles Times, The Village Voice, Vanity…. Zionism was birthed from the evils of anti-Semitism. Truthdig is on hiatus. Sa position est donc contre toute idée de colonisation. If the international community wants to salvage the rule of law in international relations, it has to take concrete action. Le 2 novembre 1917, Arthur Balfour, ministre britannique des Affaires étrangères, adressait une lettre à la Fédération sioniste dans laquelle il accordait le soutien de son gouvernement à la création d’un foyer national juif en Palestine. The Israeli army periodically unleashes massive assaults with its air force, artillery and mechanized units on the largely defenseless 1.85 million Palestinians in Gaza, resulting in thousands of Palestinian dead and wounded. The repeated revolts, as Said noted, gave the Palestinians the right to tell their own story, the “permission to narrate.”, The colonial project has poisoned Israel, as feared by its most prescient leaders, including Moshe Dayan and Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, who was assassinated by a right-wing Jewish extremist in 1995. Israel is an apartheid state that rivals and often surpasses the onetime savagery and racism of apartheid South Africa. DE MIDI À 16 HA LA FONTAINE DES INNOCENTS. The problem is that decades of impunity have led many Israeli officials to believe that there is no longer even a need to bend international rules and seek a creeping de facto annexation and, with the backing of the Trump administration, they have now sought a de jure seizure of Palestinian land. If the function and the spirit of rule-based system of international relations is to be preserved, that force must be the force of law. It emptied West Jerusalem and cities such as Haifa and Jaffa, along with numerous towns and villages, of their Arab inhabitants. Emma Niles, by This will simply allow it to slip back into its old strategy of de facto annexation. It was a recipe for endless conflict, especially since giving the Palestinians under occupation full democratic rights would risk loss of control of Israel by the Jews. German colonists in Palestine (“Templars”) as well as some remote parts of the German Empire (Kiautschou) were very carefully observed. But this resistance has also forced the world to recognize the presence of Palestinians, despite the feverish efforts of Israel, the United States and many Arab regimes to remove them from historical consciousness. An Independent, Progressive Journal of News and Opinion. The Israeli public is infected with racism. Chris Hedges, by Publisher, Zuade Kaufman, and Editor in Chief, Robert Scheer. He foresaw that “the Arabs would be the working people and the Jews the administrators, inspectors, officials, and police — mainly secret police. It is a manufactured conflict, the outcome of a 100-year-old colonial occupation by Zionists and later Israel, backed by the British, the United States and other major imperial powers. 14 The British mandate authorities took seriously their promise to promote and protect Zionist colonisation, but they … 1871 : Révolte de Kabylie (Algérie). American Jews, once promised a homeland in Palestine, would, they thought, bring the United States into the war and help finance the war effort. In recent years, up to 1 million Israelis have left to live in the United States, many of them among Israel’s most enlightened and educated citizens. “Religious nationalism is to religion what National Socialism was to socialism,” said Leibowitz, who died in 1994. D’autres mouvements ont eu lieu en Inde, à la Palestine et à Madagascar. The British leaders were convinced that Jews secretly controlled the U.S. financial system. All rights reserved. The Israeli educational system, starting in primary school, is an indoctrination machine for the military. The views expressed in this article are the author’s own and do not necessarily reflect Al Jazeera’s editorial stance. So, while leading Zionists understood that they had to uproot and displace Arabs to establish a homeland, they were also acutely aware that they were not wanted in the countries from which they had fled or been expelled. En 1874, le pays est criblé de dettes. A state ruling a hostile population of 1.5 million to 2 million foreigners would necessarily become a secret-police state, with all that this implies for education, free speech and democratic institutions. By incorporating globalisation and the free market economy into its colonial enterprise, Israel has created an economic incentive structure which continues to perpetuate the conflict in order to grow profit. 5 février 2021. He has written 12 books, including the New York Times best-seller “Days of Destruction, Days of Revolt” (2012), which he co-authored with the…, Mr. Mais, en fait, il faut attendre la seconde moitié du xviesiècle pour voir apparaître d'autres ambitions que la domination de la Manche et de la mer du Nord. Your Truthdig, your way. Ramzy Baroud is a journalist and the editor of The Palestine Chronicle. From the early days of the occupation in 1967, Israeli officials were advised that the appropriation of property for the purposes of civilian settlements would be considered a violation of international humanitarian law which theoretically prohibits the practice of colonialism. The great Jewish scholar Yeshayahu Leibowitz, whom Isaiah Berlin called “the conscience of Israel,” saw the mortal danger to Israel of its colonial project. La Palestine et Le Sahara Occidental ont un dénominateur en commun qui s’appelle la colonisation. The Jewish leadership was also acutely aware that its intentions had to be masked behind euphemisms, the patina of biblical legitimacy by Jews to a land that had been Muslim since the seventh century, platitudes about human and democratic rights, the supposed benefits of colonization to the colonized and a mendacious call for democracy and peaceful co-existence with those targeted for destruction. Their first patron was Britain, which sent 100,000 troops to crush the Palestinian revolt of the 1930s and armed and trained Jewish militias known as the Haganah. The corruption characteristic of every colonial regime would also prevail in the State of Israel. That is what the Arabs in Palestine are doing, and what they will persist in doing as long as there remains a solitary spark of hope that they will be able to prevent the transformation of ‘Palestine’ into the ‘Land of Israel.’ ”. Mr. ... 23 octobre 1948 Début, au sud de la Palestine, du siège de Faloudja qui se prolonge jusqu’à l’armistice de février 1949 et au cours duquel s’illustre le futur colonel Nasser. To bookmark your favorite articles, please create a user profile. The savage repression of that revolt included wholesale executions and aerial bombardment and left 10% of the adult male Arab population killed, wounded, imprisoned or exiled. Within Israel, human rights campaigners, intellectuals and journalists — Israeli and Palestinian — have found themselves vilified as traitors in government-sponsored smear campaigns, placed under state surveillance and subjected to arbitrary arrests. Si la colonisation de la Palestine a été caractérisée par une série de déprédations, il nous faut prendre le temps d’examiner l’attitude du mouvement sioniste non seulement envers ses victimes palestiniennes (sur laquelle nous reviendrons), mais envers les juifs eux-mêmes. Editor’s note: A previous version of this article state incorrectly that Israel has 80 years of history. interest in cultivating Western European settlement in Palestine, voted to partition Palestine into a Jewish and Arab state. “Indeed, those who analyze not only Israeli settlement efforts in Jerusalem, the West Bank, and the occupied Syrian Golan Heights, but the entire Zionist enterprise from the perspective of its colonial settler origins and nature are often vilified. This is why the boycott, divestment and sanctions movement frightens Israel. Encore cet éveil à l'expansion maritime est-il motivé par l'imitation et la crainte des Espagnols et des Portugais. La position de l’ONU. Vue dans ses lignes de force les plus générales, l'expansion coloniale se caractérise par deux grandes phases d'une activité agressive séparées par une période de crise se situa… 1842 : « Traités inégaux » entre la Chine et l'Angleterre. Depuis cette époque jusqu'en 1920, il n'y eut pas un seul conflit entre les Arabes de Palestine et les colons juifs. The Zionists and their supporters may have mouthed slogans such as “a land without a people for a people without a land” in speaking of Palestine, but, as the political philosopher Hannah Arendt observed, European powers were attempting to deal with the crime carried out against Jews in Europe by committing another crime, one against Palestinians. If Israel is exempted from the rule of international law, how can the EU evoke international law to justify its position on matters such as Russia’s annexation of Crimea, for example? World Jewry, the British were convinced, was the key to winning the war. It has been updated with the correct number – 72. Greg Wilpert / The Real News Network. It is the tragic clash between two peoples with claims to the same land. Cette lettre est à l’origine de la colonisation de la Palestine, qui se poursuit aujourd’hui. It’s not that they want to exploit us, or that they need to keep us there in the way of Algeria or South Africa as a subclass.”. Many cannot accept the contradiction inherent in the idea that although Zionism undoubtedly succeeded in creating a thriving national entity in Israel, its roots are as a colonial settler project (as are those of other modern countries: the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand). by The European powers dealt with the Jewish refugee crisis by shipping victims of the Holocaust to the Middle East. imperatively demanded by the necessities of war, in the interests of the civilian population, Third International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism, Break the fear barrier and speak up for Palestine, Senegal’s revolutionary icon Omar Blondin Diop deserves justice, The tripartite alliance that is destabilisng the Horn of Africa, Gaza tower block collapses after Israeli strike, Palestinians say 21 killed as Israeli air raids on Gaza continue, Melinda Gates met divorce lawyers when Epstein ties revealed: WSJ, Elon Musk asks Twitter followers if Tesla should accept Dogecoin, Al Jazeera Centre for Public Liberties & Human Rights.
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